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Abstract The inward drift of millimeter–centimeter sized pebbles in protoplanetary disks has become an important part of our current theories of planet formation and, more recently, planet composition as well. The gas-to-dust size ratio of protoplanetary disks can provide an important constraint on how pebbles have drifted inward, provided that observational effects, especially resolution, can be accounted for. Here we present a method for fitting beam-convolved models to integrated intensity maps of line emission using theastropyPython package and use it to fit¹²CO moment zero maps of 10 Lupus and 10 Upper Scorpius protoplanetary disks from the ALMA Survey of Gas Evolution of PROtoplanetary Disks (AGE-PRO) Program, a sample of disks around M3-K6 stars that cover the  ∼1–6 Myr of gas disk evolution. From the unconvolved best fit models, we measure the gas disk size ( $R_{\mathrm{CO},90\%}^{\mathrm{model}}$), which we combine with the dust disk size ( $R_{\mathrm{dust},90\%}^{\mathrm{FRANK}}$) from continuum visibility fits from M. Vioque et al. to compute beam-corrected gas-to-dust size ratios. In our sample, we find gas-to-dust size ratios between  ∼1 and  ∼5.5, with a median value of $2.78_{-0.32}^{+0.37}$. Contrary to models of dust evolution that predict an increasing size ratio with time, we find that the younger disks in Lupus have similar (or even larger) median ratios $\left(3.02_{-0.33}^{+0.33}\right)$than the older disks in Upper Sco $\left(2.46_{-0.38}^{+0.53}\right)$. A possible explanation for this discrepancy is that pebble drift is halted in dust traps combined with truncation of the gas disk by external photoevaporation in Upper Sco, although survivorship bias could also play a role. 

Abstract The ALMA survey of Gas Evolution in PROtoplanetary disks (AGE-PRO) Large Program aims to trace the evolution of gas disk mass and size throughout the lifetime of protoplanetary disks by using the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA). This paper presents Band-6 ALMA observations of 10 embedded (Class I and Flat Spectrum) sources in the Ophiuchus molecular cloud, with spectral types ranging from M3 to K6 stars, which serve as the evolutionary starting point in the AGE-PRO sample. While we find four nearly edge-on disks (≥70°), and three highly inclined disks (≥60°) in our sample, we show that, as a population, embedded disks in Ophiuchus are not significantly contaminated by more-evolved, but highly inclined sources. We derived dust disk masses from the Band-6 continuum and estimated gas disk masses from the C¹⁸OJ= 2−1 and C¹⁷OJ= 2−1 lines. The mass estimates from the C¹⁷O line are slightly higher, suggesting C¹⁸O emission might be partially optically thick. While the¹²CO and¹³CO lines are severely contaminated by extended emission and self-absorption, the C¹⁸O and C¹⁷O lines are allowed to trace the radial extent of the gaseous disks. From these measurements, we found that the C¹⁸OJ= 2−1 and C¹⁷OJ= 2−1 fluxes correlate well with each other and with the continuum fluxes. Furthermore, the C¹⁸O and C¹⁷O lines present a larger radial extension than disk dust sizes by factors ranging from ∼1.5 to ∼2.5, as is found for Class II disks using the radial extension of the¹²CO. In addition, we have detected outflows in three disks from¹²CO observations. 

Abstract Protoplanetary disk evolution can be deeply influenced by the UV radiation emitted by neighboring massive stars (mainly of spectral types O and B). We show that the process ofexternal photoevaporation, which causes an outside-in depletion of disk material due to environmental UV radiation, can lead to a significant decrease in disk size, disk mass, and lifetime even at moderate irradiation levels (1–10 G₀). In this work, we investigate the role of external photoevaporation in shaping the masses and sizes of the 10 AGE-PRO disks in the Upper Scorpius (Upper Sco) region, which we estimate to be subject to far-ultraviolet (FUV) fluxes ranging between ∼2 and ∼12 G₀, on average. We compare the disk masses and sizes resulting from 1D numerical viscous evolution simulations, in which the effect of external photoevaporation is included, to the values retrieved from the AGE-PRO observations. While the pure viscous framework fails in adequately explaining the observed disk properties in Upper Sco, with the inclusion of external photoevaporation, we can successfully reproduce gas disk sizes for seven out of 10 sources within a factor <2, when the initial disk mass is 1%–10% of the stellar mass. We emphasize the importance of accounting for the environmental irradiation when comparing star-forming regions of different ages, even when moderate FUV irradiation fields are experienced, as in the case of Upper Sco. 

Abstract The Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) large program AGE-PRO explores protoplanetary disk evolution by studying gas and dust across various ages. This work focuses on 10 evolved disks in Upper Scorpius, observed in dust continuum emission, CO and its isotopologues, and N₂H⁺with ALMA Bands 6 and 7. Disk radii, from the radial location enclosing 68% of the flux, are comparable to those in the younger Lupus region for both gas and dust tracers. However, solid masses are about an order of magnitude below those in Lupus and Ophiuchus, while the dust spectral index suggests some level of dust evolution. These empirical findings align with a combination of radial drift, dust trapping, and grain growth into larger bodies. A moderate correlation between CO and continuum fluxes suggests a link between gas and dust content, through the increased scatter compared to younger regions, possibly due to age variations, gas-to-dust ratio differences, or CO depletion. Additionally, the correlation between C¹⁸O and N₂H⁺fluxes observed in Lupus persists in Upper Scorpius, indicating a relatively stable CO gas abundance over the Class II stage of disk evolution. In conclusion, the AGE-PRO survey of Upper Scorpius disks reveals intriguing trends in disk evolution. The findings point toward potential gas evolution and the presence of dust traps in these older disks. Future high-resolution observations are needed to confirm these possibilities and further refine our understanding of disk evolution and planet formation in older environments. 

Abstract We perform visibility fitting to the dust continuum Band 6 1.3 mm data of the 30 protoplanetary disks in the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array Survey of Gas Evolution of PROtoplanetary Disks (AGE-PRO) Large Program. We obtain disk geometries, dust-disk radii, and azimuthally symmetric radial profiles of the intensity of the dust continuum emission. We examine the presence of continuum substructures in the AGE-PRO sample by using these radial profiles and their residuals. We detect substructures in 15 out of 30 disks. We report five disks with large (>15 au) inner dust cavities. The Ophiuchus Class I disks show dust-disk substructures in ∼80% of the resolved sources. This evidences the early formation of substructures in protoplanetary disks. A spiral is identified in IRS 63, hinting to gravitational instability in this massive disk. We compare our dust-disk brightness radial profiles with gas-disk brightness radial profiles and discuss colocal substructures in both tracers. In addition, we discuss the evolution of dust-disk radii and substructures across Ophiuchus, Lupus, and Upper Scorpius. We find that disks in Lupus and Upper Scorpius with large inner dust cavities have typical gas-disk masses, suggesting an abundance of dust cavities in these regions. The prevalence of pressure dust traps at later ages is supported by a potential trend with time with more disks with large inner dust cavities (ortransition disks) in Upper Scorpius and the absence of evolution of dust-disk sizes with time in the AGE-PRO sample. We propose this is caused by an evolutionary sequence with a high fraction of protoplanetary disks with inner protoplanets carving dust cavities. 

Abstract The potential for planet formation of a circumstellar disk depends on the dust and gas reservoirs, which evolve as a function of the disk age. The Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array AGE-PRO Large Program has measured several disk properties across three star-forming regions of different ages, and in this study, we compare the observational results to dust evolution simulations. UsingDustPyfor the dust evolution, andRADMC-3Dfor the radiative transfer, we ran a large grid of models spanning stellar masses of 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, and 1.0M_⊙, with different initial conditions, including: disk sizes, disk gas masses, and dust-to-gas ratio, and viscosity. Our models are performed assuming smooth, weakly, or strongly substructured disks, aiming to investigate if any observational trend can favor or exclude the presence of dust traps. The observed gas masses in the disks of the AGE-PRO sample are not reproducible with our models, which only consider viscous evolution with constantα, suggesting that additional physical mechanisms play a role in the evolution of the gas mass of disks. When comparing the dust continuum emission fluxes and sizes at 1.3 mm, we find that most of the disks in the AGE-PRO sample are consistent with simulations that have either weak or strong dust traps. The evolution of spectral index in the AGE-PRO sample is also suggestive of an unresolved population of dust traps. Future observations at high angular resolution are still needed to test several hypotheses that result from comparing the observations to our simulations, including that more massive disks in gas mass have the potential to form dust traps at larger disk radii. 

We present the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array Survey of Gas Evolution of PROtoplanetary Disks (AGE-PRO), a large program of the ALMA. AGE-PRO aims to systematically trace the evolution of gas disk mass and size throughout the lifetime of protoplanetary disks. It uses a carefully selected sample of 30 disks around M3-K6 stars in three nearby star-forming regions: Ophiuchus (0.5–1 Myr), Lupus (1–3 Myr), and Upper Sco (2–6 Myr). Assuming the three regions had similar initial conditions and evolutionary paths, we find the median gas disk mass appears to decrease with age. Ophiuchus disks have the highest median gas mass (6M_Jup), while the Lupus and Upper Sco disks have significantly lower median masses (0.68 and 0.44M_Jup, respectively). Notably, the gas and dust disk masses appear to evolve on different timescales. This is evidenced by the median gas-to-dust mass ratio, which decreases from 122 in the youngest disks (<1 Myr) to 46 in Lupus disks, and then increases to 120 in the Upper Sco disks. The median gas disk sizes range between 74 and 110 au, suggesting that typical gas disks are much smaller than those of well-studied, massive disks. Population synthesis models suggest that magnetohydrodynamic wind-driven accretion can reproduce median disk properties across all three regions, when assuming compact disks with a declining magnetic field over time. In contrast, turbulent-driven models overestimate gas masses of >1 Myr disks by an order of magnitude. Here, we discuss the program’s motivation, survey design, sample selection, observation and data calibration processes, and highlight the initial results. 

Abstract The evolution of the gas mass of planet-forming disks around young stars is crucial for our understanding of planet formation, yet it has proven hard to constrain observationally, due both to the difficulties of measuring gas masses and the lack of a homogeneous sample. Here we present a large grid of thermochemical models that we use to measure protoplanetary gas disk masses of AGE-PRO, the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array survey of Gas Evolution in PROtoplanetary disks. AGE-PRO covers a sample of 30 disks around similar spectral type (M3-K6) stars with ages between 0.1 and 10 Myr. Our approach is to simultaneously fit observations of CO isotopologues and N₂H⁺, a complementary molecule produced when CO freezes out. We find that the median gas mass of the three regions decreases over time, from $7.0_{-2.6}^{+4.4}\times 10^{-3}{M}_{\odot }$in Ophiuchus (≲1 Myr) to $9.4_{-3.4}^{+5.4}\times 10^{-4}{M}_{\odot }$for Lupus (∼1–3 Myr) and $6.8_{-2.8}^{+5.1}\times 10^{-4}{M}_{\odot }$for Upper Sco (∼2–6 Myr), with ∼1 dex scatter in gas mass in each region. We note that the gas mass distributions for Lupus and Upper Sco look very similar, which could be due to survivorship bias for the latter. The median bulk CO abundance in the CO emitting layer is found to be a factor ∼10 lower than the interstellar medium value but does not significantly change between Lupus and Upper Sco. From Lupus to Upper Sco, the median gas-to-dust mass ratio increases by a factor ∼3 from ∼40 to ∼120, suggesting efficient inward pebble drift and/or the formation of planetesimals. 

Abstract We present Band 6 and Band 7 observations of 10 Lupus disks around M3-K6 stars from the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array survey of Gas Evolution in PROtoplanetary disks (AGE-PRO) Large Program. In addition to continuum emission in both bands, our Band 6 setup covers the¹²CO,¹³CO, and C¹⁸OJ= 2–1 lines, while our Band 7 setup covers the N₂H⁺J= 3–2 line. All of our sources are detected in¹²CO and¹³CO; seven out of ten are detected in C¹⁸O; and three are detected in N₂H⁺. We find strong correlations between the CO isotopologue line fluxes and the continuum flux densities. With the exception of one disk, we also identify a strong correlation between the C¹⁸OJ= 2–1 and N₂H⁺J= 3–2 fluxes, indicating similar CO abundances across this sample. For the two sources with well-resolved continuum and¹²COJ= 2–1 images, we find that their gas-to-dust size ratio is consistent with the median value of ∼2 inferred from a larger sample of Lupus disks. We derive dust disk masses from continuum flux densities. We estimate gas disk masses by comparing C¹⁸OJ= 2–1 line fluxes with those predicted by the limited grid of self-consistent disk models of M. Ruaud et al. A comparison of these mass estimates with those derived by L. Trapman et al., using a combination of CO isotopologue and N₂H⁺line emission, shows that the masses are consistent with each other. Some discrepancies appear for small and faint disks, but they are still within the uncertainties. Both methods find gas disk masses increase with dust disk masses, and gas-to-dust mass ratios are between 10 and 100 in the AGE-PRO Lupus sample. 

Abstract The architecture of planetary systems depends on the evolution of the disks in which they form. In this work, we develop a population synthesis approach to interpret the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array survey of Gas Evolution of PROtoplanetary Disks (AGE-PRO) measurements of disk gas mass and size considering two scenarios: turbulence-driven evolution with photoevaporative winds and MHD wind-driven evolution. A systematic method is proposed to constrain the distribution of disk parameters from the disk fractions, accretion rates, disk gas masses, and CO gas sizes. We find that turbulence-driven accretion with initially compact disks (R₀ ≃ 5–20 au), low mass-loss rates, and relatively long viscous timescales (t_ν,0 ≃ 0.4–3 Myr orα_SS ≃ 2–4 × 10⁻⁴) can reproduce the disk fractions and gas sizes. However, the distribution of apparent disk lifetimes defined as the $M_D/{\dot{M}}_{*}$ratio is severely overestimated by turbulence-driven models. On the other hand, MHD wind-driven accretion can reproduce the bulk properties of disk populations from Ophiuchus to Upper Scorpius assuming compact disks with an initial magnetization of aboutβ ≃ 10⁵(α_DW ≃ 0.5–1 × 10⁻³) and a magnetic field that declines with time. More studies are needed to confirm the low masses found by AGE-PRO, notably for compact disks that question turbulence-driven accretion. The constrained synthetic disk populations can now be used for realistic planet population models to interpret the properties of planetary systems on a statistical basis.